Chapter Objectives

1. List major animal phyla with gastrovascular cavities and explain why they do not need a circulatory system
2. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems
3. Using an arthropod as an example, describe the circulation of hemolymph
4. Explain how hemolymph differs from blood
5. Using an earthworm as an example, describe circulation of blood and explain how it exchanges materials with interstitial fluid
6. List the components of a vertebrate cardiovascular system
7. Distinguish between an artery and a vein
8. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory systems of birds, amphibians, and mammals
9. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each
10. Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit
11. Trace a drop of blood through the human heart, listing structures it passes through en route
12. List the 4 heart valves, describe their location, and explain their function
13. Distinguish between systole and diastole
14. Describe the events of the cardiac cycle and explain what causes the 1st and 2nd heart sounds
15. Define heart murmur and explain its cause
16. Define pulse and describe the relationship between size and pulse rate among different mammals
17. Define cardiac output and explain how it is affected by a change in heart rate or stroke volume
18. Define myogenic and describe some unique properties of cardiac muscle which allows it to contract in a coordinated manner
19. Define pacemaker and describe the location of 2 patches of nodal tissue in the human heart
20. Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (Cardiac impulse) in the normal human heart
21. Explain why it is important that the cardiac impulse be delayed at the AV node
22. Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, changes in temperature, physical conditioning, and exercise
23. Compare the structures of arteries and veins and explain how differences in their structures are related to differences in their function
24. Describe how capillary structure differs from other vessels and explain how this structure relates to its function
25. Recall the law of continuity and explain why blood flow through capillary beds is substantially slower than it is through arteries and veins
26. Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured
27. Explain how peripheral resistance and cardiac output affect blood pressure
28. Explain how blood returns to the heart even though it must travel from lower extremities against gravity
29. Define microcirculation and explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated
30. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries
31. Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system
32. Explain why protein deficiency can cause edema
33. Explain how the lymphatic system helps defend the body against infection
34. Explain why vertebrate blood is classified as connective tissue
35. List the components of blood and describe a function for each
36. Outline the formation of erythrocytes from stem cells to destruction by phagocytic cells
37. Outline the sequence of events that occurs during blood clotting and explain what prevents spontaneous clotting in the absence of injury
38. Explain how atherosclerosis affects the arteries
39. Distinguish between
    1. thrombus and embolus
    2. atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis
    3. low density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high density lipoproteins (HDLs)
40. List risk factors for cardiovascular disease
41. Describe general requirements for a respiratory surface and list the variety of respiratory organs adapted for this purpose
42. Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals
43. Describe countercurrent exchange and explain why it is more efficient than concurrent flow of water or blood
44. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment
45. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures it must pass on its journey
46. Define negative pressure breathing and explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs
47. Define the following lung volumes and give a normal range of capacities for the human male
    1. tidal volume
    2. vital capacity
    3. residual volume
48. Explain how breathing is controlled
49. List 3 barriers oxygen must cross from alveolus into capillaries and explain the advantage of having millions of alveoli in the lungs
50. Describe how oxygen moves from the alveolus into the capillary and explain why a pressure gradient is necessary
51. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin
52. Describe the structure of hemoglobin and explain the result of cooperative binding and state how many oxygen molecules a saturated hemoglobin molecule can carry
53. Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration
54. Describe the Bohr effect and explain how the oxygen dissociation curve shifts with changes in carbon dioxide concentration and pH
55. Explain the advantage of the Bohr shift
56. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs, the role of carbonic anhydrase, and the most common transport form of carbon dioxide
57. Explain how hemoglobin acts as a buffer
58. Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals including the role of myoglobin

Chapter Terms:

Chapter Outline Framework

1. Circulation in Animals
   1. Transport systems functionally connect organs of exchange with body cells
   2. Most invertebrates have a gastrovascular cavity or a circulatory system for internal transport
   3. Closed cardiovascular systems accommodate gill breathing or lung breathing in vertebrates
   4. Rhythmic pumping of mammalian heart drives blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits
   5. Structural differences among blood vessels correlate with regional functions of the circulatory system
   6. Natural laws governing movement of fluid in pipes affects blood flow and blood pressure
   7. Transfer of substances between blood and interstitial fluid occurs across the thin walls of capillaries
   8. Lymphatic system returns fluid to blood and aids in body defense
   9. Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma
   10. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the US and many other developed nations
2. Gas Exchange in Animals
1. Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide
2. Gills are respiratory adaptations of most aquatic animals
3. Tracheal systems and lungs are respiratory adaptations of terrestrial animals
4. Control centers in the brain regulate rate and depth of breathing
5. Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the lungs and other organs
6. Respiratory pigments transport gases and help buffer the blood
7. Deep-diving mammals stockpile oxygen and consume it slowly

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