Chapters 48~49: Nervous, Sensory, and Motor Mechanisms
AP Biology
Stoneleigh-Burnham School
a journey into the living world!

Chapter Objectives

1. Compare the 2 coordinating systems in animals
2. Describe 3 major functions of the nervous system
3. List and describe 3 major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each
4. Explain how neurons can be classified by function
5. Describe the function and location of each type of supporting cell
6. Explain what a resting potential is and list 4 factors that contribute to the maintenance of resting potential
7. Define equilibrium potential and explain why the K⁺ equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential
8. Define graded potential and explain how it is different from a resting potential or action potential
9. Describe the characteristics of an action potential and explain the role membrane permeability changes and ion gates play in the generation of an action potential
10. Explain how the action potential is propagated along a neuron
11. Describe 2 ways to increase the effectiveness of nerve transmission
12. Describe synaptic transmission across an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse
13. Describe the role of cholinesterase and explain what would happen if acetylcholine was not destroyed
14. List some other possible neurotransmitters
15. Define neuromodulator and describe how it may affect nerve transmission
16. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials affect the postsynaptic membrane potential
17. Explain how a neuron integrates incoming information including a description of summation
18. List 3 criteria for a compound to be considered a neurotransmitter
19. List 2 classes f neuropeptides and explain how they illustrate overlap between endocrine and nervous control
20. Describe 2 mechanisms by which a neurotransmitter affects the postsynaptic cell
21. Diagram or describe the 3 major patterns of neural circuits
22. Compare ;and contrast the nervous systems of the following invertebrates and explain how variation in design and complexity correlate with phylogeny, natural history, and habitat:
    1. Hydra
    2. Jellyfish, ctenophores, and echinoderms
    3. flatworms
    4. annelids and arthropods
    5. mollusks
23. Outline the divisions of the vertebrate nervous system
24. Distinguish between sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) nerves
25. Define refl. and describe the pathway of a simple spinal reflex
26. Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system
27. List the major components of the central nervous system
28. Distinguish between white matter and Gary matter
29. Describe 3 major trends in the evolution of the vertebrate brain
30. From a diagram identify and describe the functions of the major structures of the human brain:
    1. medulla oblongata
    2. pons
    3. cerebellum
    4. superior and inferior colliculi
    5. telencephalon
    6. diencephalon
    7. thalamus
    8. hypothalamus
    9. cerebral cortex
    10. corpus callosum
31. Explain how the electrical activity of the brain can be measured and distinguish among alpha, beta, theta and delta waves
32. Describe the sleep~wakefulness cycle, the associated EEG changes, and the parts of the brain that control sleep and arousal
33. define lateralization and describe the role of the corpus callosum
34. Distinguish between short-term and long-term memory
35. Using a flowchart, outline a possible memory pathway in the brain

 

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36. Differentiate between sensation and perception
37. Give the general function of a receptor and explain the 5 processes involved in this function
38. Explain the difference between exteroreceptors and interoreceptors
39. List and describe the energy stimulus of the 5 types of receptors
40. Using a cross-sectional diagram of human skin, identify the various receptors present and explain the importance of having near-surface and deep-layer receptors for such stimuli as pressure
41. Compare and contrast the structure and processing of light in eye cups of Planar, compound eyes of insects, and single-lens eyes of mollusks
42. Using a diagram of the vertebrate eye, identify and give the function of each structure
43. Describe the function of rod and cone cells in the vertebrate eye
44. Explain how retinal signals following a horizontal pathway can enhance visual integration
45. Using a diagram of the vertebrate ear, identify and give the function of each structure
46. Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ
47. Explain how the mammalian ear functions to maintain body balance and equilibrium
48. Compare hearing and equilibrium systems found in non-mammalian vertebrates
49. Describe the structure and function of statocysts
50. Explain how the chemoreceptors involved with taste and smell function
51. List any advantages or disadvantages associated with moving through
    1. aquatic environment
    2. terrestrial environment
52. Give the 3 functions of a skeleton
53. Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and explain why they are not found in large terrestrial organisms
54. Explain how the structure of the arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and flexibility
55. Explain the adaptive advantage of having different types of joints in different locations in the vertebrate skeleton
56. Explain how muscles contract according to the sliding filament model of contraction
57. Describe the processes involved in excitation~contraction coupling
58. List and explain the 2 mechanisms responsible for graded contraction of muscles
59. Explain the adaptive advantage of possessing both slow and fast muscle fibers
60. Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

Chapter Terms:

Chapter Outline Framework

1. Overview of Nervous Systems
   1. 3 overlapping functions
      1. sensory input
      2. integration
      3. motor output
   2. Composed of neurons and supporting cells
2. Nature of Neural Signals
1. Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion concentrations between cell's contents and extracellular fluid
2. Action potential is an all-or-none change in membrane potential
3. Action potentials travel along an axon because they are self-propagating
4. Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses
5. Neural integration occurs at cellular level
6. Same neurotransmitter can produce different effects on different cell types
3. Organization of Nervous System
   1. Correlates with body symmetry
   2. Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized and cephalized
   3. Vertebrate peripheral nervous system has several components differing in organization and function
4. Structure and Function of Vertebrate Brain
   1. Develops from 3 anterior bulges of spinal cord
   2. Brain stem collects data and controls automatic activities essential for survival
   3. Cerebellum controls motion and balance
   4. Thalamus and hypothalamus are integrating centers of diencephalon
   5. Cerebrum contains most sophisticated integrating centers
   6. Human brain is major research frontier
5. Introduction to Sensory Reception
   1. Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the nervous system
   2. Sensory receptors are categorized by type of energy they transduce
6. Photoreceptors
   1. Broad array in invertebrates
   2. Single-lens eyes in vertebrates
   3. Light absorbing pigment rhodopsin operates via signal transduction
   4. Retina assists cerebral cortex in processing visual information
7. Hearing and Equilibrium
   1. Mammalian hearing organ is within inner ear
   2. Inner ear also contains organs of equilibrium
   3. Lateral line system and inner ear detect pressure waves in most fishes and aquatic amphibians
   4. Invertebrates may have gravity sensors and may be sound-sensitive
8. Chemoreception~Taste and Smell
   1. Perceptions of taste and smell are usually interrelated
9. Movement and Locomotion
   1. Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity
   2. Skeletons support and protect animal body and are essential to movement
   3. Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting
   4. Interactions between myosin and actin underlie muscle contractions
   5. Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle contraction
   6. Diverse body movements require variation in muscle activity

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