Chapters 48~49: Nervous, Sensory, and Motor Mechanisms
AP Biology
Stoneleigh-Burnham School
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Chapter Objectives

    1. Compare the 2 coordinating systems in animals
    2. Describe 3 major functions of the nervous system
    3. List and describe 3 major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each
    4. Explain how neurons can be classified by function
    5. Describe the function and location of each type of supporting cell
    6. Explain what a resting potential is and list 4 factors that contribute to the maintenance of resting potential
    7. Define equilibrium potential and explain why the K+ equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential
    8. Define graded potential and explain how it is different from a resting potential or action potential
    9. Describe the characteristics of an action potential and explain the role membrane permeability changes and ion gates play in the generation of an action potential
    10. Explain how the action potential is propagated along a neuron
    11. Describe 2 ways to increase the effectiveness of nerve transmission
    12. Describe synaptic transmission across an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse
    13. Describe the role of cholinesterase and explain what would happen if acetylcholine was not destroyed
    14. List some other possible neurotransmitters
    15. Define neuromodulator and describe how it may affect nerve transmission
    16. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials affect the postsynaptic membrane potential
    17. Explain how a neuron integrates incoming information including a description of summation
    18. List 3 criteria for a compound to be considered a neurotransmitter
    19. List 2 classes f neuropeptides and explain how they illustrate overlap between endocrine and nervous control
    20. Describe 2 mechanisms by which a neurotransmitter affects the postsynaptic cell
    21. Diagram or describe the 3 major patterns of neural circuits
    22. Compare ;and contrast the nervous systems of the following invertebrates and explain how variation in design and complexity correlate with phylogeny, natural history, and habitat:
      1. Hydra
      2. Jellyfish, ctenophores, and echinoderms
      3. flatworms
      4. annelids and arthropods
      5. mollusks
    23. Outline the divisions of the vertebrate nervous system
    24. Distinguish between sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) nerves
    25. Define refl. and describe the pathway of a simple spinal reflex
    26. Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system
    27. List the major components of the central nervous system
    28. Distinguish between white matter and Gary matter
    29. Describe 3 major trends in the evolution of the vertebrate brain
    30. From a diagram identify and describe the functions of the major structures of the human brain:
      1. medulla oblongata
      2. pons
      3. cerebellum
      4. superior and inferior colliculi
      5. telencephalon
      6. diencephalon
      7. thalamus
      8. hypothalamus
      9. cerebral cortex
      10. corpus callosum
    31. Explain how the electrical activity of the brain can be measured and distinguish among alpha, beta, theta and delta waves
    32. Describe the sleep~wakefulness cycle, the associated EEG changes, and the parts of the brain that control sleep and arousal
    33. define lateralization and describe the role of the corpus callosum
    34. Distinguish between short-term and long-term memory
    35. Using a flowchart, outline a possible memory pathway in the brain

     

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    1. Differentiate between sensation and perception
    2. Give the general function of a receptor and explain the 5 processes involved in this function
    3. Explain the difference between exteroreceptors and interoreceptors
    4. List and describe the energy stimulus of the 5 types of receptors
    5. Using a cross-sectional diagram of human skin, identify the various receptors present and explain the importance of having near-surface and deep-layer receptors for such stimuli as pressure
    6. Compare and contrast the structure and processing of light in eye cups of Planar, compound eyes of insects, and single-lens eyes of mollusks
    7. Using a diagram of the vertebrate eye, identify and give the function of each structure
    8. Describe the function of rod and cone cells in the vertebrate eye
    9. Explain how retinal signals following a horizontal pathway can enhance visual integration
    10. Using a diagram of the vertebrate ear, identify and give the function of each structure
    11. Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ
    12. Explain how the mammalian ear functions to maintain body balance and equilibrium
    13. Compare hearing and equilibrium systems found in non-mammalian vertebrates
    14. Describe the structure and function of statocysts
    15. Explain how the chemoreceptors involved with taste and smell function
    16. List any advantages or disadvantages associated with moving through
      1. aquatic environment
      2. terrestrial environment
    17. Give the 3 functions of a skeleton
    18. Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and explain why they are not found in large terrestrial organisms
    19. Explain how the structure of the arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and flexibility
    20. Explain the adaptive advantage of having different types of joints in different locations in the vertebrate skeleton
    21. Explain how muscles contract according to the sliding filament model of contraction
    22. Describe the processes involved in excitation~contraction coupling
    23. List and explain the 2 mechanisms responsible for graded contraction of muscles
    24. Explain the adaptive advantage of possessing both slow and fast muscle fibers
    25. Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

Chapter Terms:

Chapter 48 Terms

central nervous system

effector cells

nerves

peripheral nervous system stem

neurons

cell body

dendrites

axons

myelin sheath

Schwann cells

oligodendrocytes

synaptic terminals

synapse

sensory neurons

interneurons

motor neurons

reflex

ganglion (ganglia)

nuclei

supporting cells (glia)

blood~brain barrier

membrane potential

excitable cells

resting potential

gated ion channels

hyperpolarization

depolarization

graded potentials

threshold potential

action potential

voltage-gated ion channels

refractory period

saltatory conduction

presynaptic cell

postsynaptic cell

synaptic cleft

synaptic vesicles

neurotransmitter

white matter

presynaptic membrane

postsynaptic membrane

excitatory postsynaptic potential

inhibitory postsynaptic potential

summation

biogenic amines

epinephrine

norepinephrine

dopamine

serotonin

gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

glycine

glutamate

aspartate

neuropeptides

substance P

endorphins

cephalization

nerve cord

metencephalon

gray matter

central canal

ventricles

cerebrospinal fluid

meninges

cranial nerves

spinal nerves

sensory division

motor division

somatic nervous system

autonomic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

forebrain

midbrain

hindbrain

telencephalon

diencephalon

mesencephalon

myencephalon

brain stem

medulla oblongata

pons

inferior colliculi

superior colliculi

cerebellum

epithalamus

hypothalamus

suprochiasmatic nuclei

cerebral hemispheres

basal nuclei

cerebral cortex

corpus callosum

EEG

reticular formation

limbic system

amygdala

short-term memory

long-term memory

hippocampus

long-term depression

long-germ potentiation

consciousness

nerve net

Chapter 48 Terms

sensation

perception

sensory reception

sensory receptor

exteroreceptors

interoreceptors

sensory transduction

receptor potential

amplification

transmission

integration

sensory adaptation

mechanoreceptors

muscle spindle

hair cell

pain receptor

nociceptor

thermoreceptor

chemoreceptor

gustatory receptor

olfactory receptor

electromagnetic receptor

photoreceptor

eye cup

compound eyes

ommatidia

single-lens eye

sclera

choriod

conjunctiva

cornea

iris

pupil

retina lens

ciliary body

aqueous humor

vitreous humor

accommodation

rod cells

cone cells

fovea

retina

opsin

rhodopsin

photopsins

bipolar cells

ganglion cells

horizontal cells

amacrine cells

lateral inhibition

optic chiasm

lateral geniculate nuclei

primary visual cortex

outer ear

tympanic membrane

middle ear

malleus

incus

stapes

oval window

Eustachian tube

inner ear

cochlea

organ of Corti

round window

pitch

utricle

saccule

semicircular canals

lateral line system

neuromast

statocysts

statoliths

taste buds

locomotion

hydrostatic skeleton

peristalsis

exoskeleton

cuticle

chitin

endoskeleton

skeletal muscle

myofibrils

myofilaments

thin filaments

thick filaments

sarcomere

sliding-filament model

phosphagens

creatine phosphate

trpomyosin

troponin complex

sarcoplasmic reticulum

tetanus

motor unit

recruitment

fast muscle fiber

slow muscle fiber

cardiac muscle

intercalated discs

smooth muscle

 

Chapter Outline Framework

    1. Overview of Nervous Systems
      1. 3 overlapping functions
        1. sensory input
        2. integration
        3. motor output
      2. Composed of neurons and supporting cells
    2. Nature of Neural Signals
      1. Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion concentrations between cell's contents and extracellular fluid
      2. Action potential is an all-or-none change in membrane potential
      3. Action potentials travel along an axon because they are self-propagating
      4. Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses
      5. Neural integration occurs at cellular level
      6. Same neurotransmitter can produce different effects on different cell types
    3. Organization of Nervous System
      1. Correlates with body symmetry
      2. Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized and cephalized
      3. Vertebrate peripheral nervous system has several components differing in organization and function
    4. Structure and Function of Vertebrate Brain
      1. Develops from 3 anterior bulges of spinal cord
      2. Brain stem collects data and controls automatic activities essential for survival
      3. Cerebellum controls motion and balance
      4. Thalamus and hypothalamus are integrating centers of diencephalon
      5. Cerebrum contains most sophisticated integrating centers
      6. Human brain is major research frontier
    5. Introduction to Sensory Reception
      1. Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the nervous system
      2. Sensory receptors are categorized by type of energy they transduce
    6. Photoreceptors
      1. Broad array in invertebrates
      2. Single-lens eyes in vertebrates
      3. Light absorbing pigment rhodopsin operates via signal transduction
      4. Retina assists cerebral cortex in processing visual information
    7. Hearing and Equilibrium
      1. Mammalian hearing organ is within inner ear
      2. Inner ear also contains organs of equilibrium
      3. Lateral line system and inner ear detect pressure waves in most fishes and aquatic amphibians
      4. Invertebrates may have gravity sensors and may be sound-sensitive
    8. Chemoreception~Taste and Smell
      1. Perceptions of taste and smell are usually interrelated
    9. Movement and Locomotion
      1. Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity
      2. Skeletons support and protect animal body and are essential to movement
      3. Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting
      4. Interactions between myosin and actin underlie muscle contractions
      5. Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle contraction
      6. Diverse body movements require variation in muscle activity

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